http://www.cambridge.org/gb/academic/su ... iddle-agesHow did people of the medieval period explain physical phenomena, such as eclipses or the distribution of land and water on the globe? What creatures did they think they might encounter: angels, devils, witches, dogheaded people? This fascinating book explores the ways in which medieval people categorized the world, concentrating on the division between the natural and the supernatural and showing how the idea of the supernatural came to be invented in the Middle Ages. Robert Bartlett examines how theologians and others sought to draw lines between the natural, the miraculous, the marvelous and the monstrous, and the many conceptual problems they encountered as they did so. The final chapter explores the extraordinary thought-world of Roger Bacon as a case study exemplifying these issues. By recovering the mentalities of medieval writers and thinkers the book raises the critical question of how we deal with beliefs we no longer share.
http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/histo ... .2.ii.html
The thread about Josephus' Jesus notes he was flogged but would not stop crying woe to Jerusalem, so he was judged to be mad.The History of Animals
By Aristotle
Written 350 B.C.E
Translated by D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson
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Part 1
With regard to animals in general, some parts or organs are common to all, as has been said, and some are common only to particular genera; the parts, moreover, are identical with or different from one another on the lines already repeatedly laid down. For as a general rule all animals that are generically distinct have the majority of their parts or organs different in form or species; and some of them they have only analogically similar and diverse in kind or genus, while they have others that are alike in kind but specifically diverse; and many parts or organs exist in some animals, but not in others.
For instance, viviparous quadrupeds have all a head and a neck, and all the parts or organs of the head, but they differ each from other in the shapes of the parts. The lion has its neck composed of one single bone instead of vertebrae; but, when dissected, the animal is found in all internal characters to resemble the dog.
The quadrupedal vivipara instead of arms have forelegs. This is true of all quadrupeds, but such of them as have toes have, practically speaking, organs analogous to hands; at all events, they use these fore-limbs for many purposes as hands. And they have the limbs on the left-hand side less distinct from those on the right than man.
The fore-limbs then serve more or less the purpose of hands in quadrupeds, with the exception of the elephant. This latter animal has its toes somewhat indistinctly defined, and its front legs are much bigger than its hinder ones; it is five-toed, and has short ankles to its hind feet. But it has a nose such in properties and such in size as to allow of its using the same for a hand. For it eats and drinks by lifting up its food with the aid of this organ into its mouth, and with the same organ it lifts up articles to the driver on its back; with this organ it can pluck up trees by the roots, and when walking through water it spouts the water up by means of it; and this organ is capable of being crooked or coiled at the tip, but not of flexing like a joint, for it is composed of gristle.
This is not recognised but what was going on in many trials is a form of experiment - is the person lying or telling the truth, or they another category, demon possessed or mad.
http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eKY1 ... CCAQ6AEwAAThis accessible study of witches, from their western origins in Greece and Rome, to their persecution in the 16th century and 20th-century paganism, aims to challenge some commonly held misconceptions about witches and witchcraft. Many witches, for example, were male and witches went unharmed and unpersecuted for much of history. Maxwell-Stuart discusses the connection between magic and heresy, sterotypical images of witches through the centuries and methods used to identify suspects. Chapters also consider famous trials and witches and the social and religious context for the witches who `plagued' North America and Protestant England in the 17th century. The study is now available in a small paperback format.
This rational trying to work out what is happening and drawing conclusions, is something we have done for a long time. The problems do repeat though - false beliefs, prejudice (pre judging!) rhetoric, logic fails...
Are we not attempting the same? Rationally looking at the past and making judgements?
But are we not confusing matters? I think we too easily impute our ideas on the ancients - who had not invented many of the technologies and ideas we use all the time.
I think the classic error we make is about the category supernatural. It did not exist before about 1100!
Before that everyone is trying to fit their round experiences into a quite small set of square holes!
For example, in discussing elsewhere if Jesus is an an angel we need to be very clear how people then - and the views of the writers and editors of Genesis may also be very different to those of the New Testament - were thinking and what ideas they had in their heads - like gods did walk in gardens, could show their bums to Moses, did live in the Ark, could have sex with men and women...
