This entire line of inquiry, as the links to the Pauline material above will attest, derives from Margaret Barker's work. Essentially, she argues that the "traditional" theology of the Jews involved two gods: El Elyon and Yahweh. The former is regarded as the latter's father. At some point a "reformed" theology took root which reduced the number of gods to one and cleanly equated El Elyon with Yahweh. The overall perspective of the Hebrew scriptures takes up the "reformed" stance, but there are hints of the "traditional" stance throughout them, as well. Barker argues, in fact, that the notion of two gods, father and son, is what underlies much of early Christianity, with Jesus (= "Yahweh saves") being Yahweh and his father being the Most High God. She deals with the entire New Testament, however, in one fell swoop, and I have been examining the books one by one to see how they might fall with respect to the "traditional" and "reformed" theologies outlined here above.
These are the two basic options:
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I can imagine a third option, one in which Yahweh and El Elyon are two separate entities and Jesus is a third (the Messiah/Christ), but frankly I have found no texts as of yet which even suggest such a structure. Wherever Yahweh and his father seem to be separate, so far at least, Jesus always seems to be identifiable with Yahweh. There are likewise other options (such as all relevant entities being one and the same, a form of patripassianism, if you will) which seem unnecessary to me from the earliest Christian texts.
(A brief note about terminology. I do think Barker uses the terms "traditional" and "reformed" somewhere, but I do not think she uses them as official names for the two categories; that is my own doing. Also, the name El Elyon is being used here only for the sake of clarity; in the texts themselves, that name is rare. What is at stake is not the exact name, but rather the theological construct of two deities instead of one. Where two such deities are in view, by far the most common name for the father is simply "God" — "Father" is also quite common.)
The score so far.... To my mind, the Pauline epistles seem to fall squarely under the "traditional" theology. Of course, spin has offered stiff resistance to this notion. But I am still on that beam, so to speak. I am slightly inclined, on the other hand, to place the epistle of James and the Didache under the "reformed" theology, in which the bare term κύριος always applies to the Father, not to the Son. The Didache has a couple of exceptions to this, but these exceptions strike me, based on Alan Garrow's work (but for much different reasons), as later insertions into the text. The epistle of James, likewise, does twice call Jesus κύριος, but two contingencies are possible: either both of these lines are interpolations, or in both instances Jesus can be called Lord in addition to his Father, but in Jesus' case it must be specified. Most Christian texts throughout history are mixed like this, after all: the term κύριος can apply both to God the Father and to Jesus the Son. But this practice, which continues to this day, is conditioned upon centuries of theological background reflection which informs educated Christians which person is being referred to in any given context. My query is how this must have worked in the earliest stages of Christianity, before those centuries of theological reflection took place. Did early Christians simply not care which entity they were referring to when they used the term κύριος? Or were they more precise in their terminology than we sometimes give them credit for?
At any rate, this post is about simply laying out the instances of κύριος in the epistles of Peter, the epistles of John, and that of Jude.
1 Peter
There is one instance in 1 Peter in which the word κύριος refers to human masters:
1 Peter 3.6: 6 Thus Sarah obeyed Abraham, calling him lord, and you have become her children if you do what is right without being frightened by any fear.
There are several instances in which the Lord seems to be Jesus:
1 Peter 1.3-5: 3 Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who according to His great mercy has caused us to be born again to a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead, 4 to obtain an inheritance which is imperishable and undefiled and will not fade away, reserved in heaven for you, 5 who are protected by the power of God through faith for a salvation ready to be revealed in the last time.
1 Peter 2.1-5: 1 Therefore, putting aside all malice and all guile and hypocrisy and envy and all slander, 2 like newborn babes, long for the pure milk of the word, that by it you may grow in respect to salvation, 3 if you have tasted the kindness of the Lord. 4 And coming to Him as to a living stone, rejected by men, but choice and precious in the sight of God, 5 you also, as living stones, are being built up as a spiritual house for a holy priesthood, to offer up spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ.
1 Peter 3.13-16: 13 And who is there to harm you if you prove zealous for what is good? 14 But even if you should suffer for the sake of righteousness, you are blessed. And do not fear their intimidation, and do not be troubled, 15 but sanctify Christ as Lord in your hearts, always being ready to make a defense to everyone who asks you to give an account for the hope that is in you, yet with gentleness and reverence; 16 and keep a good conscience so that in the thing in which you are slandered, those who revile your good behavior in Christ may be put to shame.
1 Peter 2.1-5: 1 Therefore, putting aside all malice and all guile and hypocrisy and envy and all slander, 2 like newborn babes, long for the pure milk of the word, that by it you may grow in respect to salvation, 3 if you have tasted the kindness of the Lord. 4 And coming to Him as to a living stone, rejected by men, but choice and precious in the sight of God, 5 you also, as living stones, are being built up as a spiritual house for a holy priesthood, to offer up spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ.
1 Peter 3.13-16: 13 And who is there to harm you if you prove zealous for what is good? 14 But even if you should suffer for the sake of righteousness, you are blessed. And do not fear their intimidation, and do not be troubled, 15 but sanctify Christ as Lord in your hearts, always being ready to make a defense to everyone who asks you to give an account for the hope that is in you, yet with gentleness and reverence; 16 and keep a good conscience so that in the thing in which you are slandered, those who revile your good behavior in Christ may be put to shame.
There is only one instance in which the Lord seems to be God, and this instance occurs in a quotation from the Hebrew scriptures:
1 Peter 1.22-25: 22 Since you have in obedience to the truth purified your souls for a sincere love of the brethren, fervently love one another from the heart, 23 for you have been born again not of seed which is perishable but imperishable, that is, through the living and abiding word of God. 24 For, "All flesh is like grass, and all its glory like the flower of grass. The grass withers, and the flower falls off, 25 but the word of the Lord abides forever." And this is the word which was preached to you.
There are a couple of instances in which the identity of the Lord seems to be ambiguous in its own right:
1 Peter 2.13-14: 13 Submit yourselves for the Lord's sake to every human institution, whether to a king as the one in authority, 14 or to governors as sent by him for the punishment of evildoers and the praise of those who do right.
1 Peter 3.8-12: 8 To sum up, all of you be harmonious, sympathetic, brotherly, kindhearted, and humble in spirit; 9 not returning evil for evil or insult for insult, but giving a blessing instead; for you were called for the very purpose that you might inherit a blessing. 10 For "let him who means to love life and see good days refrain his tongue from evil and his lips from speaking guile. 11 And let him turn away from evil and do good; let him seek peace and pursue it. 12 For the eyes of the Lord are upon the righteous, and His ears attend to their prayer, but the face of the Lord is against those who do evil."
1 Peter 3.8-12: 8 To sum up, all of you be harmonious, sympathetic, brotherly, kindhearted, and humble in spirit; 9 not returning evil for evil or insult for insult, but giving a blessing instead; for you were called for the very purpose that you might inherit a blessing. 10 For "let him who means to love life and see good days refrain his tongue from evil and his lips from speaking guile. 11 And let him turn away from evil and do good; let him seek peace and pursue it. 12 For the eyes of the Lord are upon the righteous, and His ears attend to their prayer, but the face of the Lord is against those who do evil."
Overall, 1 Peter could perhaps belong to the "traditional" scheme, like the epistles of Paul appear to belong to. The only instance in which the Lord appears to be God is from a direct quotation of the scriptures. And in 1 Peter 2.3 we have an unmarked instance of "the Lord" which, from the ensuing context, virtually has to mean Jesus, since Peter tells us to come "to him as to a living stone, rejected by men, but choice and precious in the sight of God," implying that the Lord, or the living stone, is not the same as God.
2 Peter
There are several instances in 2 Peter in which the Lord seems to be Jesus:
2 Peter 1.2-3: Grace and peace be multiplied to you in the knowledge of God and of Jesus our Lord; 3 seeing that His divine power has granted to us everything pertaining to life and godliness, through the true knowledge of Him who called us by His own glory and excellence.
2 Peter 1.8: 8 For if these qualities are yours and are increasing, they render you neither useless nor unfruitful in the true knowledge of our Lord Jesus Christ. 9 For he who lacks these qualities is blind or short-sighted, having forgotten his purification from his former sins. 10 Therefore, brethren, be all the more diligent to make certain about His calling and choosing you; for as long as you practice these things, you will never stumble; 11 for in this way the entrance into the eternal kingdom of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ will be abundantly supplied to you. 12 Therefore, I shall always be ready to remind you of these things, even though you already know them, and have been established in the truth which is present with you. 13 And I consider it right, as long as I am in this earthly dwelling, to stir you up by way of reminder, 14 knowing that the laying aside of my earthly dwelling is imminent, as also our Lord Jesus Christ has made clear to me. 15 And I will also be diligent that at any time after my departure you may be able to call these things to mind. 16 For we did not follow cleverly devised tales when we made known to you the power and coming of our Lord Jesus Christ, but we were eyewitnesses of His majesty. 17 For when He received honor and glory from God the Father, such an utterance as this was made to Him by the Majestic Glory, "This is My beloved Son with whom I am well-pleased." 18 And we ourselves heard this utterance made from heaven when we were with Him on the holy mountain.
2 Peter 2.20: 20 For if after they have escaped the defilements of the world by the knowledge of the Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, they are again entangled in them and are overcome, the last state has become worse for them than the first.
2 Peter 3.1-2: 1 This is now, beloved, the second letter I am writing to you in which I am stirring up your sincere mind by way of reminder, 2 that you should remember the words spoken beforehand by the holy prophets and the commandment of the Lord and Savior spoken by your apostles.
2 Peter 3.17-18: 17 You therefore, beloved, knowing this beforehand, be on your guard so that you are not carried away by the error of unprincipled men and fall from your own steadfastness, 18 but grow in the grace and knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. To Him be the glory, both now and to the day of eternity. Amen.
2 Peter 1.8: 8 For if these qualities are yours and are increasing, they render you neither useless nor unfruitful in the true knowledge of our Lord Jesus Christ. 9 For he who lacks these qualities is blind or short-sighted, having forgotten his purification from his former sins. 10 Therefore, brethren, be all the more diligent to make certain about His calling and choosing you; for as long as you practice these things, you will never stumble; 11 for in this way the entrance into the eternal kingdom of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ will be abundantly supplied to you. 12 Therefore, I shall always be ready to remind you of these things, even though you already know them, and have been established in the truth which is present with you. 13 And I consider it right, as long as I am in this earthly dwelling, to stir you up by way of reminder, 14 knowing that the laying aside of my earthly dwelling is imminent, as also our Lord Jesus Christ has made clear to me. 15 And I will also be diligent that at any time after my departure you may be able to call these things to mind. 16 For we did not follow cleverly devised tales when we made known to you the power and coming of our Lord Jesus Christ, but we were eyewitnesses of His majesty. 17 For when He received honor and glory from God the Father, such an utterance as this was made to Him by the Majestic Glory, "This is My beloved Son with whom I am well-pleased." 18 And we ourselves heard this utterance made from heaven when we were with Him on the holy mountain.
2 Peter 2.20: 20 For if after they have escaped the defilements of the world by the knowledge of the Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, they are again entangled in them and are overcome, the last state has become worse for them than the first.
2 Peter 3.1-2: 1 This is now, beloved, the second letter I am writing to you in which I am stirring up your sincere mind by way of reminder, 2 that you should remember the words spoken beforehand by the holy prophets and the commandment of the Lord and Savior spoken by your apostles.
2 Peter 3.17-18: 17 You therefore, beloved, knowing this beforehand, be on your guard so that you are not carried away by the error of unprincipled men and fall from your own steadfastness, 18 but grow in the grace and knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. To Him be the glory, both now and to the day of eternity. Amen.
There is one clear instance in which the Lord seems to be God:
2 Peter 2.4-11: 4 For if God did not spare angels when they sinned, but cast them into hell and committed them to pits of darkness, reserved for judgment; 5 and did not spare the ancient world, but preserved Noah, a preacher of righteousness, with seven others, when He brought a flood upon the world of the ungodly; 6 and if He condemned the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah to destruction by reducing them to ashes, having made them an example to those who would live ungodly lives thereafter; 7 and if He rescued righteous Lot, oppressed by the sensual conduct of unprincipled men 8 (for by what he saw and heard that righteous man, while living among them, felt his righteous soul tormented day after day by their lawless deeds), 9 then the Lord knows how to rescue the godly from temptation, and to keep the unrighteous under punishment for the day of judgment, 10 and especially those who indulge the flesh in its corrupt desires and despise lordship. Daring, self-willed, they do not tremble when they revile angelic majesties, 11 whereas angels who are greater in might and power do not bring a reviling judgment against them before the Lord.
It is possible, I suppose, that the sense is that, since God (the Father) knows how to punish and rescue people, so too the Lord (= Jesus the Son) knows how to punish and rescue people.
There is also a passage in which κύριος is in parallel with God ("the day of the Lord" = "the day of God"), but is otherwise ambiguous on its own merits:
2 Peter 3.8-18: 8 But do not let this one fact escape your notice, beloved, that with the Lord one day is as a thousand years, and a thousand years as one day. 9 The Lord is not slow about His promise, as some count slowness, but is patient toward you, not wishing for any to perish but for all to come to repentance. 10 But the day of the Lord will come like a thief, in which the heavens will pass away with a roar and the elements will be destroyed with intense heat, and the earth and its works will be burned up. 11 Since all these things are to be destroyed in this way, what sort of people ought you to be in holy conduct and godliness, 12 looking for and hastening the coming of the day of God, because of which the heavens will be destroyed by burning, and the elements will melt with intense heat! 13 But according to His promise we are looking for new heavens and a new earth, in which righteousness dwells. 14 Therefore, beloved, since you look for these things, be diligent to be found by Him in peace, spotless and blameless, 15 and regard the patience of our Lord as salvation; just as also our beloved brother Paul, according to the wisdom given him, wrote to you, 16 as also in all his letters, speaking in them of these things, in which are some things hard to understand, which the untaught and unstable distort, as they do also the rest of the Scriptures, to their own destruction.
2 Peter appears to me to be a mixed text, at least so far in my thinking. The term Lord seems to be applied both to Jesus and to God, to a point where it can be confusing without a firm theological context to tell them apart.
1 John, 2 John, 3 John
There are no instances of "Lord" in 1, 2, or 3 John at all. Interesting. There is a lot of talk about the Father and the Son, of course, but nothing concrete about lordship.
Jude
This epistle is brief, so here it is in its entirety:
Jude [1.]1-25: 1 Jude, a bond-servant of Jesus Christ, and brother of James, to those who are the called, beloved in God the Father, and kept for Jesus Christ: 2 May mercy and peace and love be multiplied to you. 3 Beloved, while I was making every effort to write you about our common salvation, I felt the necessity to write to you appealing that you contend earnestly for the faith which was once for all handed down to the saints. 4 For certain persons have crept in unnoticed, those who were long beforehand marked out for this condemnation, ungodly persons who turn the grace of our God into licentiousness and deny our only Master and Lord, Jesus Christ. 5 Now I desire to remind you, though you know all things once for all, that the Lord [or Jesus; major textual issue here], after saving a people out of the land of Egypt, subsequently destroyed those who did not believe. 6 And angels who did not keep their own domain, but abandoned their proper abode, He has kept in eternal bonds under darkness for the judgment of the great day, 7 just as Sodom and Gomorrah and the cities around them, since they in the same way as these indulged in gross immorality and went after strange flesh, are exhibited as an example in undergoing the punishment of eternal fire. 8 Yet in the same way these men, also by dreaming, defile the flesh, and reject lordship, and revile angelic majesties. 9 But Michael the archangel, when he disputed with the devil and argued about the body of Moses, did not dare pronounce against him a railing judgment, but said, "The Lord rebuke you!" 10 But these men revile the things which they do not understand; and the things which they know by instinct, like unreasoning animals, by these things they are destroyed. 11 Woe to them! For they have gone the way of Cain, and for pay they have rushed headlong into the error of Balaam, and perished in the rebellion of Korah. 12 These are the men who are hidden reefs in your love feasts when they feast with you without fear, caring for themselves; clouds without water, carried along by winds; autumn trees without fruit, doubly dead, uprooted; 13 wild waves of the sea, casting up their own shame like foam; wandering stars, for whom the black darkness has been reserved forever. 14 It was also about these men that Enoch, in the seventh generation from Adam, prophesied, saying, "Behold, the Lord came with many thousands of His holy ones, 15 to execute judgment upon all, and to convict all the ungodly of all their ungodly deeds which they have done in an ungodly way, and of all the harsh things which ungodly sinners have spoken against Him." 16 These are grumblers, finding fault, following after their own lusts; they speak arrogantly, flattering people for the sake of gaining an advantage. 17 But you, beloved, ought to remember the words that were spoken beforehand by the apostles of our Lord Jesus Christ, 18 that they were saying to you, "In the last time there will be mockers, following after their own ungodly lusts." 19 These are the ones who cause divisions, worldly-minded, devoid of the Spirit. 20 But you, beloved, building yourselves up on your most holy faith, praying in the Holy Spirit, 21 keep yourselves in the love of God, waiting anxiously for the mercy of our Lord Jesus Christ to eternal life. 22 And have mercy on some, who are doubting; 23 save others, snatching them out of the fire; and on some have mercy with fear, hating even the garment polluted by the flesh. 24 Now to Him who is able to keep you from stumbling, and to make you stand in the presence of His glory blameless with great joy, 25 to the only God our Savior, through Jesus Christ our Lord, be glory, majesty, dominion and authority, before all time and now and forever. Amen.
In this epistle the Lord seems to be Jesus the Son every time, with the possible (by no means certain) exception of the quotations of scripture. Jude even has a possible counterpart to the Pauline verse which insists upon only one Lord:
Jude [1.]4: 4 For certain persons have crept in unnoticed, those who were long beforehand marked out for this condemnation, ungodly persons who turn the grace of our God into licentiousness and deny our only Master and Lord, Jesus Christ.
1 Corinthians 8.6: 6 ...yet for us there is but one God, the Father, from whom are all things, and we exist for Him; and one Lord, Jesus Christ, by whom are all things, and we exist through Him.
1 Corinthians 8.6: 6 ...yet for us there is but one God, the Father, from whom are all things, and we exist for Him; and one Lord, Jesus Christ, by whom are all things, and we exist through Him.
The epistle of Jude, then, may easily fall into the same "traditional" category as the epistles of Paul.
Insights welcome.
Ben.
