An inventory of Jewish scriptural literary forms.

[Ben C. Smith]

This thread is intended to help me compile an inventory of Jewish scriptural literary forms. A literary form, for my purposes here, is a recognizable kind of writing that one can find either in individual passages or across entire books of the Jewish scriptures.

Say, for example, that you are reading the account of a barren woman who prays to the Lord before providentially becoming pregant and giving birth, and then suddenly that woman is breaking out into song (1 Samuel 2.1 NASB):

Hannah also prayed and said,

"My heart exults in the Lord;
My strength is exalted in the Lord.
My mouth derides my enemies,
Because I rejoice in thy salvation."

The literary form has changed. You were reading a story, and now it is a song of some kind; you were reading prose, and now it is poetry.

Or say, for instance, that you are in the middle of a list of ancestors and descendants, and out of the blue someone is beseeching God for a blessing (1 Chronicles 4.9-10 NASB):

Jabez was more honorable than his brothers; and his mother called his name Jabez, saying, "Because I bore him in pain." Jabez called on the God of Israel, saying, "Oh that thou wouldst bless me and enlarge my border, and that thy hand might be with me, and that thou wouldst keep me from harm so that it might not hurt me!" And God granted what he asked.

Again, the literary form has changed. You have found a prayer lurking within that genealogy.

I wish to create a list of such forms as they are found in the books of the Hebrew scriptures (both canonical and deuterocanonical). These literary forms are not quite the same as genres; a genre applies to an entire book, whereas a form can apply to individual passages. Of course, sometimes a literary form can be stretched out across an entire book, virtually without interruption, in which case the form and the genre either overlap or are the same thing.

Each proposed literary form will be accompanied by a brief definition and at least one sample of the form. The definition ought to distinguish as needed between prose and poetry and between narration (in which the words on the page belong to the narrator) and quotation (in which the words belong to one of the characters).

Quotation may be divided between monologue and dialogue. Sometimes it will matter who the speaker is or who the listeners are. A variation of quotation is the citation, in which, instead of a character, a text is quoted.

As for narration, level of detail may come into play; is the passage a list, a summary, or a narrative? Other distinctions will be made as needed.

The following forms are what I have so far.

Blessings and curses: A summary or list of results for obedience or disobedience. Deuteronomy 28.1-6, 15-19 NASB:

1 “Now it shall be, if you diligently obey the Lord your God, being careful to do all His commandments which I command you today, the Lord your God will set you high above all the nations of the earth. 2 All these blessings will come upon you and overtake you if you obey the Lord your God:
3 “Blessed shall you be in the city, and blessed shall you be in the country.
4 “Blessed shall be the offspring of your body and the produce of your ground and the offspring of your beasts, the increase of your herd and the young of your flock.
5 “Blessed shall be your basket and your kneading bowl.
6 “Blessed shall you be when you come in, and blessed shall you be when you go out.

....

15 “But it shall come about, if you do not obey the Lord your God, to observe to do all His commandments and His statutes with which I charge you today, that all these curses will come upon you and overtake you:
16 “Cursed shall you be in the city, and cursed shall you be in the country.
17 “Cursed shall be your basket and your kneading bowl.
18 “Cursed shall be the offspring of your body and the produce of your ground, the increase of your herd and the young of your flock.
19 “Cursed shall you be when you come in, and cursed shall you be when you go out.

Catalogue: A prose list of people, places, or things. May be referred to as a travelogue if of places on a journey (as in Numbers 33). Joshua 12.7-24 NASB:

7 Now these are the kings of the land whom Joshua and the sons of Israel defeated beyond the Jordan toward the west, from Baal-gad in the valley of Lebanon even as far as Mount Halak, which rises toward Seir; and Joshua gave it to the tribes of Israel as a possession according to their divisions, 8 in the hill country, in the lowland, in the Arabah, on the slopes, and in the wilderness, and in the Negev; the Hittite, the Amorite and the Canaanite, the Perizzite, the Hivite and the Jebusite: 9 the king of Jericho, one; the king of Ai, which is beside Bethel, one; 10 the king of Jerusalem, one; the king of Hebron, one; 11 the king of Jarmuth, one; the king of Lachish, one; 12 the king of Eglon, one; the king of Gezer, one; 13 the king of Debir, one; the king of Geder, one; 14 the king of Hormah, one; the king of Arad, one; 15 the king of Libnah, one; the king of Adullam, one; 16 the king of Makkedah, one; the king of Bethel, one; 17 the king of Tappuah, one; the king of Hepher, one; 18 the king of Aphek, one; the king of Lasharon, one; 19 the king of Madon, one; the king of Hazor, one; 20 the king of Shimron-meron, one; the king of Achshaph, one; 21 the king of Taanach, one; the king of Megiddo, one; 22 the king of Kedesh, one; the king of Jokneam in Carmel, one; 23 the king of Dor in the heights of Dor, one; the king of Goiim in Gilgal, one; 24 the king of Tirzah, one: in all, thirty-one kings.

Chronicle: A summary of a specific range of events, such as the reign of a king. 2 Kings 21.19-26 NASB:

19 Amon was twenty-two years old when he became king, and he reigned two years in Jerusalem; and his mother’s name was Meshullemeth the daughter of Haruz of Jotbah. 20 He did evil in the sight of the Lord, as Manasseh his father had done. 21 For he walked in all the way that his father had walked, and served the idols that his father had served and worshiped them. 22 So he forsook the Lord, the God of his fathers, and did not walk in the way of the Lord. 23 The servants of Amon conspired against him and killed the king in his own house. 24 Then the people of the land killed all those who had conspired against King Amon, and the people of the land made Josiah his son king in his place. 25 Now the rest of the acts of Amon which he did, are they not written in the Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Judah? 26 He was buried in his grave in the garden of Uzza, and Josiah his son became king in his place.

Dream and interpretation: A monologue recounting the contents of a dream followed by another monologue recounting its interpretation. Both monologues may be introduced and/or concluded with narration. Also, the dream and interpretation themselves may involve narration. Genesis 37.5-8 NASB:

5 Then Joseph had a dream, and when he told it to his brothers, they hated him even more. 6 He said to them, “Please listen to this dream which I have had; 7 for behold, we were binding sheaves in the field, and lo, my sheaf rose up and also stood erect; and behold, your sheaves gathered around and bowed down to my sheaf.” 8 Then his brothers said to him, “Are you actually going to reign over us? Or are you really going to rule over us?” So they hated him even more for his dreams and for his words.

Epistle or letter: Citation of a written communication between characters. The epistle itself may contain virtually any of the other available literary forms. 1 Kings 21.8-10 NASB:

8 So she wrote letters in Ahab’s name and sealed them with his seal, and sent letters to the elders and to the nobles who were living with Naboth in his city. 9 Now she wrote in the letters, saying, “Proclaim a fast and seat Naboth at the head of the people; 10 and seat two worthless men before him, and let them testify against him, saying, ‘You cursed God and the king.’ Then take him out and stone him to death.”

Etiology or etymology: A narrative, a summary, or even a list giving the origins of a name, custom, ritual, or other cultural relic. Genesis 32.24-32 NASB (three etiologies in one):

24 Then Jacob was left alone, and a man wrestled with him until daybreak. 25 When he saw that he had not prevailed against him, he touched the socket of his thigh; so the socket of Jacob’s thigh was dislocated while he wrestled with him. 26 Then he said, “Let me go, for the dawn is breaking.” But he said, “I will not let you go unless you bless me.” 27 So he said to him, “What is your name?” And he said, “Jacob.” 28 He said, “Your name shall no longer be Jacob, but Israel; for you have striven with God and with men and have prevailed.” 29 Then Jacob asked him and said, “Please tell me your name.” But he said, “Why is it that you ask my name?” And he blessed him there. 30 So Jacob named the place Peniel, for he said, “I have seen God face to face, yet my life has been preserved.” 31 Now the sun rose upon him just as he crossed over Penuel, and he was limping on his thigh. 32 Therefore, to this day the sons of Israel do not eat the sinew of the hip which is on the socket of the thigh, because he touched the socket of Jacob’s thigh in the sinew of the hip.

Genealogy: A list of ancestors and descendants, usually in chronological order. Horizontal relationships (such as brothers) may appear alongside vertical arrangements (such as fathers and sons). 1 Chronicles 3.10-15 NASB:

10 Now Solomon’s son was Rehoboam, Abijah was his son, Asa his son, Jehoshaphat his son, 11 Joram his son, Ahaziah his son, Joash his son, 12 Amaziah his son, Azariah his son, Jotham his son, 13 Ahaz his son, Hezekiah his son, Manasseh his son, 14 Amon his son, Josiah his son. 15 The sons of Josiah were Johanan the firstborn, and the second was Jehoiakim, the third Zedekiah, the fourth Shallum.

Hymn: A poem or psalm intended to facilitate worship. The speaker is usually a human; the listener can be other humans or God himself. Subforms include psalms of Zion or psalms of divine enthronement. Psalm 117.1-2 NASB:

1 Praise the Lord, all nations;
Laud Him, all peoples!
2 For His lovingkindness is great toward us,
And the truth of the Lord is everlasting.
Praise the Lord!

Lament: A poem or psalm intended to convey sorrow or anger. Lament may be either communal or individual and may protest innocence, confess guilt, demand vengeance, or affirm trust. Psalm 44.9-16 NASB:

9 Yet You have rejected us and brought us to dishonor,
And do not go out with our armies.
10 You cause us to turn back from the adversary;
And those who hate us have taken spoil for themselves.
11 You give us as sheep to be eaten
And have scattered us among the nations.
12 You sell Your people cheaply,
And have not profited by their sale.
13 You make us a reproach to our neighbors,
A scoffing and a derision to those around us.
14 You make us a byword among the nations,
A laughingstock among the peoples.
15 All day long my dishonor is before me
And my humiliation has overwhelmed me,
16 Because of the voice of him who reproaches and reviles,
Because of the presence of the enemy and the avenger.

Law: Instructional prose in the form of a monologue from God to humans. Leviticus 11.1-3 NASB:

1 The Lord spoke again to Moses and to Aaron, saying to them, 2 “Speak to the sons of Israel, saying, ‘These are the creatures which you may eat from all the animals that are on the earth. 3 Whatever divides a hoof, thus making split hoofs, and chews the cud, among the animals, that you may eat.”

Liturgical psalm: A poem or psalm with an antiphonal structure especially fit for call and response. Psalm 118.1-4:

1 Give thanks to the Lord, for He is good;
For His lovingkindness is everlasting.
2 Oh let Israel say,
“His lovingkindness is everlasting.”
3 Oh let the house of Aaron say,
“His lovingkindness is everlasting.”
4 Oh let those who fear the Lord say,
“His lovingkindness is everlasting.”

Oracle or prophecy: May be a divine monologue or a dialogue between the prophet and God. God is the ultimate source of the main quotation, but it may be spoken either by God himself or by the prophet. Numbers 23.4-10 NASB:

4 Now God met Balaam, and he said to Him, “I have set up the seven altars, and I have offered up a bull and a ram on each altar.” 5 Then the Lord put a word in Balaam’s mouth and said, “Return to Balak, and you shall speak thus.” 6 So he returned to him, and behold, he was standing beside his burnt offering, he and all the leaders of Moab. 7 He took up his discourse and said,
“From Aram Balak has brought me,
Moab’s king from the mountains of the East,
‘Come curse Jacob for me,
And come, denounce Israel!’
8 “How shall I curse whom God has not cursed?
And how can I denounce whom the Lord has not denounced?
9 “As I see him from the top of the rocks,
And I look at him from the hills;
Behold, a people who dwells apart,
And will not be reckoned among the nations.
10 “Who can count the dust of Jacob,
Or number the fourth part of Israel?
Let me die the death of the upright,
And let my end be like his!”

Prayer: Monologue spoken by a human to God. May also include some dialogue with God. Ezra 9.5-9 NASB:

5 But at the evening offering I arose from my humiliation, even with my garment and my robe torn, and I fell on my knees and stretched out my hands to the Lord my God; 6 and I said, “O my God, I am ashamed and embarrassed to lift up my face to You, my God, for our iniquities have risen above our heads and our guilt has grown even to the heavens. 7 Since the days of our fathers to this day we have been in great guilt, and on account of our iniquities we, our kings and our priests have been given into the hand of the kings of the lands, to the sword, to captivity and to plunder and to [e]open shame, as it is this day. 8 But now for a brief moment grace has been shown from the Lord our God, to leave us an escaped remnant and to give us a peg in His holy place, that our God may enlighten our eyes and grant us a little reviving in our bondage. 9 For we are slaves; yet in our bondage our God has not forsaken us, but has extended lovingkindness to us in the sight of the kings of Persia, to give us reviving to raise up the house of our God, to restore its ruins and to give us a wall in Judah and Jerusalem.”

Proverb(s): Instructional poetry that presumes a direct relationship of some kind between the speaker and the listener (parent to child, mentor to pupil, or the like). Proverbs 1.8-9 NASB:

8 Hear, my son, your father’s instruction
And do not forsake your mother’s teaching;
9 Indeed, they are a graceful wreath to your head
And ornaments about your neck.

Psalm superscription or subscription (on some hypotheses): Informational summary of a psalm or poem. Psalm 51.0 NASB:

For the choir director. A Psalm of David, when Nathan the prophet came to him, after he had gone in to Bathsheba.

Riddle: A brief monologue in the form of a question or statement, often poetic, intentionally phrased so as to require ingenuity in ascertaining its answer or meaning. Typically includes a narrative setup and may also include accompanying dialogue. Judges 14.12-14 NASB:

12 Then Samson said to them, “Let me now propound a riddle to you; if you will indeed tell it to me within the seven days of the feast, and find it out, then I will give you thirty linen wraps and thirty changes of clothes. 13 But if you are unable to tell me, then you shall give me thirty linen wraps and thirty changes of clothes.” And they said to him, “Propound your riddle, that we may hear it.” 14 So he said to them,

“Out of the eater came something to eat,
And out of the strong came something sweet.”

But they could not tell the riddle in three days.

Royal psalm: A poem or psalm intended to honor the monarch. Psalm 2.1-9 NASB:

1 Why are the nations in an uproar
And the peoples devising a vain thing?
2 The kings of the earth take their stand
And the rulers take counsel together
Against the Lord and against His Anointed, saying,
3 “Let us tear their fetters apart
And cast away their cords from us!”
4 He who sits in the heavens laughs,
The Lord scoffs at them.
5 Then He will speak to them in His anger
And terrify them in His fury, saying,
6 “But as for Me, I have installed My King
Upon Zion, My holy mountain.”
7 “I will surely tell of the decree of the Lord:
He said to Me, ‘You are My Son,
Today I have begotten You.
8 ‘Ask of Me, and I will surely give the nations as Your inheritance,
And the very ends of the earth as Your possession.
9 ‘You shall break them with a rod of iron,
You shall shatter them like earthenware.’”

Speech: Monologue by human to humans. Joshua 24.14-15 NASB:

14 “Now, therefore, fear the Lord and serve Him in sincerity and truth; and put away the gods which your fathers served beyond the River and in Egypt, and serve the Lord. 15 If it is disagreeable in your sight to serve the Lord, choose for yourselves today whom you will serve: whether the gods which your fathers served which were beyond the River, or the gods of the Amorites in whose land you are living; but as for me and my house, we will serve the Lord.”

Story: A prose narrative. May contain dialogue, but the plot is carried forward by deeds, not words. Ruth 2.1-7 NASB:

1 Now Naomi had a kinsman of her husband, a man of great wealth, of the family of Elimelech, whose name was Boaz. 2 And Ruth the Moabitess said to Naomi, “Please let me go to the field and glean among the ears of grain after one in whose sight I may find favor.” And she said to her, “Go, my daughter.” 3 So she departed and went and gleaned in the field after the reapers; and she happened to come to the portion of the field belonging to Boaz, who was of the family of Elimelech. 4 Now behold, Boaz came from Bethlehem and said to the reapers, “May the Lord be with you.” And they said to him, “May the Lord bless you.” 5 Then Boaz said to his servant who was in charge of the reapers, “Whose young woman is this?” 6 The servant in charge of the reapers replied, “She is the young Moabite woman who returned with Naomi from the land of Moab. 7 And she said, ‘Please let me glean and gather after the reapers among the sheaves.’ Thus she came and has remained from the morning until now; she has been sitting in the house for a little while.”

Thanksgiving: A psalm intended to thank God. May be communal or individual. Psalm 65.5-8 NASB:

5 By awesome deeds You answer us in righteousness, O God of our salvation,
You who are the trust of all the ends of the earth and of the farthest sea;
6 Who establishes the mountains by His strength,
Being girded with might;
7 Who stills the roaring of the seas,
The roaring of their waves,
And the tumult of the peoples.
8 They who dwell in the ends of the earth stand in awe of Your signs;
You make the dawn and the sunset shout for joy.

Wisdom: Instructional poetry that does not presume a direct relationship between the speaker and the listener. Ecclesiastes 1.1-5 NASB:

1 The words of the Preacher, the son of David, king in Jerusalem.

2 “Vanity of vanities,” says the Preacher,
“Vanity of vanities! All is vanity.”
3 What advantage does man have in all his work
Which he does under the sun?
4 A generation goes and a generation comes,
But the earth remains forever.
5 Also, the sun rises and the sun sets;
And hastening to its place it rises there again.

What other literary forms should I add? Do some of the above need to be modified?

Ben.

[Tenorikuma]

How about an etiology? A short narrative episode that concludes with a summary that "and so that place was named such-and-such, for that is where such-and-such happened.” These are always folk etiologies, of course, and never correct.

Similarly would be name etymologies. "Zipporah gave birth to a son, and Moses named him Gershom, saying, 'I have become a foreigner in a foreign land.'"

How about riddles? There's a famous (albeit kinda lame) one in the story of Samson.

There are also things like acrostics that might or might not fit into your scheme.

[Ben C. Smith]

Those are great examples, Tenorikuma. I combined etiology and etymology into one due to their similarity of purpose and form, and added both it and riddles to the list. (I went with Genesis 32.24-32 as my example, since it combines 3 instances into one brief passage.) Thanks.

An acrostic is what I would call a literary device, a category that would include rhyme, rhythm, alliteration, hyperbole, and so forth. Maybe a list for another time.

Ben.

ETA: And yes, I think Samson cheated at the riddle game, much like Bilbo Baggins asking Gollum what was in his pocket.

[Tenorikuma]

Do you consider vassal-treaty language (especially things like enumerations of curses) to fall under "Law"?

[Tenorikuma]

Thinking about Psalms, I'm not sure "hymn" and "lament" cover everything. Royal psalms are sort of their own category, and you have things like pilgrimage psalms, liturgy, etc.

Some psalms also have superscriptions, which would probably be a separate text form.

[Ben C. Smith]

Thinking about Psalms, I'm not sure "hymn" and "lament" cover everything. Royal psalms are sort of their own category, and you have things like pilgrimage psalms, liturgy, etc.

Some psalms also have superscriptions, which would probably be a separate text form.

Good point. My psalm classification is pretty weak so far.

Your observation reminded me that I'd seen a pretty comprehensive classification of the Psalms at some point, and a bit of googling turned up this: http://biblical-studies.ca/pdfs/Gunkel_ ... Psalms.pdf. I will review it shortly and add the relevant categories to the inventory.

Do you consider vassal-treaty language (especially things like enumerations of curses) to fall under "Law"?

I will add blessings and curses to the list, as well. Good catch.

Ben.

[Anat]

What about other (non-genealogical) lists? For instance the lists of kings defeated by Joshua's armies in Joshua 12 or 'the stages of the children of Israel' in Numbers 33?

Also lists of cities in each tribe's territory and so forth, the outcomes of the census in Numbers.

[Ben C. Smith]

What about other (non-genealogical) lists? For instance the lists of kings defeated by Joshua's armies in Joshua 12 or 'the stages of the children of Israel' in Numbers 33?

Also lists of cities in each tribe's territory and so forth, the outcomes of the census in Numbers.

Excellent. Since I have already used the word list as a level of detail for narration, I have added this kind of writing to the inventory under the name of catalogue. Thanks.

Ben.