Trigger warning: In this post I have consistently translated the Greek term ὁλοκαύτωμα as holocaust, which in this context is a type of whole burnt sacrifice, not a reference to genocide. My purpose in using this term is to distinguish, even in translation, this particular variety of sacrifice (which can also be translated as whole burnt offering or whole burnt sacrifice) from the Greek terms for the act of offering forth (προσφέρω) and the act of offering up (ἀναφέρω) a generic sacrifice (θυσία).
My first text of choice, Leviticus 1.1-17, recounts the divine instructions for offering various kinds of voluntary animal sacrifices (voluntary for the offerer, naturally, not for the animal; Hebrew terms are from the Masoretic text, Greek terms from the LXX; the parenthetical numbers will be explained below):
{Introduction:} Then the Lord called to Moses and spoke to him out from the tabernacle of testimony, saying: Speak to the sons of Israel and way toward them: If a man from among you should lead forth gifts for the Lord, he shall offer forth [προσοίσετε] your gifts from among the beasts, the cattle, and the sheep.
{Sacrifice of cattle:} If his gift [τὸ δῶρον αὐτοῦ] is a holocaust [ὁλοκαύτωμα] from the cattle, he shall lead it forth, a male without blemish, toward the door of the tabernacle of testimony; he shall offer it forth [יַקְרִ֣יב, προσοίσει], acceptable before the Lord. And he shall put his hand upon the head of the oblation (1), acceptable for him to make appeasement concerning him. And he shall slay the calf before the Lord (2), and the sons of Aaron, the priests, shall offer forth [הִקְרִיבוּ, προσοίσουσιν] the blood (4) and pour forth the blood roundabout on the altar (5), the one at the door of the tabernacle of testimony. And having skinned it he shall divide it into pieces. And the sons of Aaron, the priests, shall put fire upon the altar and pile up wood on the fire. And the sons of Aaron, the priests, shall pile up the parts, the head, and the fat upon the wood upon the fire, which is on the altar. The entrails and the feet he shall wash with water, and the priests shall put them all upon the altar as an oblation; it is a sacrifice [θυσία], a fragrant aroma to the Lord (6).
{Sacrifice of sheep or goats:} But if his gift [τὸ δῶρον αὐτοῦ] should be from the flocks, from the sheep or from the goats, for a holocaust [εἰς ὁλοκαύτωμα], he shall lead it forth, a male without blemish, and he shall lay his hand upon its head (1). And he shall slay it sideways from the altar northward before the Lord (2), and the sons of Aaron, the priests, shall pour forth its blood roundabout on the altar (5). And he shall then distribute it by pieces, both the head and the fat, and the priest shall pile them up on the wood which is on the fire, which is upon the altar. And the entrails and the feet he shall wash with water, and the priest shall offer them all forth [προσοίσει], and put them upon the altar as an oblation; it is a sacrifice [θυσία], a fragrant aroma to the Lord (6).
{Sacrifice of birds:} But if you should offer forth [προσφέρῃς] an oblation from the birds as a gift to the Lord, he shall offer forth his gift from the pigeons or from the doves. And the priest shall offer it forth [προσοίσει] toward the altar and wring off its head (2), and the priest shall put it upon the altar and squeeze out its blood on the base of the altar (5). And he shall take away the crop with the feathers and cast it out beside the altar on the east, into the place of ashes; he shall break it from its wings, but shall not distribute it. And the priest shall put it upon the altar, upon the wood upon the fire as an oblation; it is a sacrifice [θυσία], a fragrant aroma to the Lord (6).
{Sacrifice of cattle:} If his gift [τὸ δῶρον αὐτοῦ] is a holocaust [ὁλοκαύτωμα] from the cattle, he shall lead it forth, a male without blemish, toward the door of the tabernacle of testimony; he shall offer it forth [יַקְרִ֣יב, προσοίσει], acceptable before the Lord. And he shall put his hand upon the head of the oblation (1), acceptable for him to make appeasement concerning him. And he shall slay the calf before the Lord (2), and the sons of Aaron, the priests, shall offer forth [הִקְרִיבוּ, προσοίσουσιν] the blood (4) and pour forth the blood roundabout on the altar (5), the one at the door of the tabernacle of testimony. And having skinned it he shall divide it into pieces. And the sons of Aaron, the priests, shall put fire upon the altar and pile up wood on the fire. And the sons of Aaron, the priests, shall pile up the parts, the head, and the fat upon the wood upon the fire, which is on the altar. The entrails and the feet he shall wash with water, and the priests shall put them all upon the altar as an oblation; it is a sacrifice [θυσία], a fragrant aroma to the Lord (6).
{Sacrifice of sheep or goats:} But if his gift [τὸ δῶρον αὐτοῦ] should be from the flocks, from the sheep or from the goats, for a holocaust [εἰς ὁλοκαύτωμα], he shall lead it forth, a male without blemish, and he shall lay his hand upon its head (1). And he shall slay it sideways from the altar northward before the Lord (2), and the sons of Aaron, the priests, shall pour forth its blood roundabout on the altar (5). And he shall then distribute it by pieces, both the head and the fat, and the priest shall pile them up on the wood which is on the fire, which is upon the altar. And the entrails and the feet he shall wash with water, and the priest shall offer them all forth [προσοίσει], and put them upon the altar as an oblation; it is a sacrifice [θυσία], a fragrant aroma to the Lord (6).
{Sacrifice of birds:} But if you should offer forth [προσφέρῃς] an oblation from the birds as a gift to the Lord, he shall offer forth his gift from the pigeons or from the doves. And the priest shall offer it forth [προσοίσει] toward the altar and wring off its head (2), and the priest shall put it upon the altar and squeeze out its blood on the base of the altar (5). And he shall take away the crop with the feathers and cast it out beside the altar on the east, into the place of ashes; he shall break it from its wings, but shall not distribute it. And the priest shall put it upon the altar, upon the wood upon the fire as an oblation; it is a sacrifice [θυσία], a fragrant aroma to the Lord (6).
The online Jewish Encyclopedia lists 6 specific acts associated with animal sacrifices:
In the animal offerings the following acts were observed: (1) "semikah" = laying on of the hand (or both hands, according to tradition); (2) "sheḥiṭah" = killing; (3) "ḳabbalah" = gathering (receiving) the blood; (4) "holakah" = carrying the blood to the altar; (5) "zeriḳah" = sprinkling the blood; (6) "haḳṭarah" = consumption by fire.
Acts 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6 are evident in Leviticus 1.1-17 above, and I have marked the steps parenthetically in the text. Act 3 is merely implied, but later rabbinical literature spelled it out. Mishnah, Zebahim 3.1-2 (http://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Zevachim ... arLang=all) gives instructions concerning the slaughter of the animal before those concerning the collection and then the sprinkling of the blood:
If people who are ineligible [to serve in the Temple] slaughtered [an offering], their slaughtering is valid, since slaughtering is valid if performed by Zarim [people who are not kohanim], by women, by slaves, and by impure individuals. This is so even for Kodshai Kodashim [sacrifices of the highest degree of sanctity. They may be slaughtered only on the north-west corner of the altar, and consumed only within the Temple compound by male priests, or burnt entirely] provided that impure individuals do not touch the meat. Therefore, these [people] invalidate [offerings] through [unlawful] thought. [If such ineligible] people collected the blood [with the intention of acting] after its proper time or outside its proper place, an eligible person should return and collect [blood] if there is still life blood [in the animal]. [If] an eligible person collected the blood and gave it to an ineligible person, he [the latter] should return it to the eligible person. [If] he collected the blood with his right hand and transferred it to his left hand, he should return it to his right hand. [If] he collected it in a consecrated vessel and then transferred it to a non-consecrated vessel - he should return it to the consecrated vessel. [If the blood] spilled from the vessel on the floor and he gathered it - it is valid. [If] he sprinkled the blood on the ramp, [or] at a spot not next to the base [of the altar], [or] if he sprinkled [blood] that should be sprinkled below [the altar's midpoint] above [it], [or if he sprinkled blood] that should be sprinkled above the altar's midpoint] below [it], or [if he dashed blood] that should be [sprinkled] inside [the Temple on the inner altar, on the] outside [altar], or [if he sprinkled blood] that should be [sprinkled on the] outside [altar] on the inside [altar], an eligible person should return and collect [blood] if there is still life blood [in the animal].
Now, one of the most common Greek terms used in sacrificial contexts in the LXX, προσφέρω, to offer forth, does not apply to any single one of these steps to the exclusion of others. Rather, it is used frequently of two of the steps (4 and 6), as well as one step, if it may be called that, which the Jewish Encyclopedia does not list: the presentation of the sacrificial animal at the door of the tabernacle (which I have labelled as act 0 below). All three of these usages appear in Leviticus 1.1-17 above.
There is at least one more way in which this verb is used, and that is to describe, in general, the entire sacrificial process. The verb seems to be used this way in Leviticus 1.2, 14 (×2), but in Leviticus 9.16, where the following simple line describes the sacrifice of the calf and the lamb introduced in 9.3, this usage is even clearer:
And he offered forth the holocaust [προσήνεγκεν τὸ ὁλοκαύτωμα] and did it as is proper.
Thus all of the steps may be encapsulated and described by this single verb. Typical usage of this verb may be summarized as follows:
- Offering forth the animal at the door of the tabernacle (0): Leviticus 1.3.
- Offering forth the blood at the altar (4): Leviticus 1.5.
- Offering forth the flesh on the altar (6): Leviticus 1.13.
- Offering forth the entire sacrifice, including all relevant steps (1-6): Leviticus 9.16.
My second passage of choice, Exodus 24.4-6, precedes the institution of the Levitical priesthood:
And Moses wrote down all the words of the Lord. And having arisen early in the morning he built an altar under the mountain, and twelve stones for the twelve tribes of Israel. And he sent out youths of the sons of Israel, and they offered up holocausts [ἀνήνεγκαν ὁλοκαυτώματα] and sacrificed [ἔθυσαν] calflings as sacrifices of salvation [θυσίαν σωτηρίου, usually translated as peace offerings] to the Lord. And having taken half the blood Moses poured it into basins, and the other half of the blood he poured onto the altar.
This passage introduces another very common Greek term for sacrifice, ἀναφέρω, to offer up. Unlike προσφέρω, this term seems to apply fairly relentlessly either to step 6 (or possibly to some or all of the steps inclusive of step 6, which is, recall, the burning of the sacrifice upon the altar) or to concepts closely related to step 6. The prefix ἀνα- means up, and the term accordingly appears to apply mainly to the part of the sacrifice in which smoke, incense, fragrance, and/or flames rise up from the altar.
Here is my list of all instances of this word used in such a way in sacrificial contexts: Genesis 8.20; 22.2, 13; Exodus 24.5; 29.18, 25; 30.9, 20; Leviticus 2.16; 3.5, 11, 14, 16; 4.10, 19, 26, 31; 6.15 (6.8 LXX & Masoretic); 6.26 (6.19 LXX & Masoretic); 7.5, 31; 8.16, 20, 21, 27 (wave offering), 28; 9.10, 20; 14.20; 16.25; 17.6; 23.11 (wave offering); Numbers 5.26; 18.17; 23.2, 30; Deuteronomy 12.13, 14, 27; 27.6. I can find only two instances of this word in sacrificial contexts in the Pentateuch in which it does not bear that basic meaning; both in Leviticus 17.5 and in Deuteronomy 14.24 the sense seems to be one of bringing up the sacrifice to the tabernacle.
Neither ἀναφέρω nor προσφέρω is strictly technical jargon; neither is limited to sacrificial contexts alone; both can be found outside of them.
It might be noticed that, of the six sacrificial steps or acts distinguished in the Jewish Encyclopedia, the first two are not necessarily priestly in nature; that is, a nonpriest is allowed (indeed, often enjoined) to lay hands upon the sacrificial animal (1) and slay it (2). And of course it will often be a nonpriest performing what I have singled out as a separate act, the presentation of the animal at the door of the tabernacle (0). The priestly part of the ritual properly begins with the handling of the blood (refer to Leviticus 3.2, for example) and continues through the consumption by fire upon the altar.
That is not to say that the laying on of hands and slaying of the animal is prohibited to priests; to the contrary, we find in 2 Chronicles 30.17; 35.10-11 that the priests can indeed do the slaughtering that the nonpriest would normally have performed, especially if the nonpriest is ritually unclean. As the Jewish Encyclopedia says:
Priests might perform this act for the offering Israelites (II Chron. xxx. 15-47; xxxv. 10, 11), though the priestly function began only with the act of receiving the blood....
There are indeed some sacrifices for which it appears to be presumed that the priests, or even the high priest himself, would personally perform the laying on of hands and the slaughter. Such sacrifices are, as might be expected, those which are being offered, not by or on behalf of any single Israelite, but rather on behalf of the entire nation.
For example, in Leviticus 16, on the Day of Atonement, the son of Aaron himself slays the bull for his own sin (16.11) and the goat for that of the people (16.15). The Mishnah agrees with this in Yoma 4.3 (http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/bar/bar052.htm; the context here is the high priest offering his bullock for his own sin, as per Leviticus 16.11):
He slaughtered him and caught his blood in a bowl, and he gave it to him who mixed it upon the fourth platform of the Sanctuary, that it might not congeal. He took the censer, and went up to the top of the altar, and raked the live coals here and there, and gathered out from the inner embers. And went down and placed it upon the fourth platform in the court.
Yoma 5.4 relates (http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/bar/bar053.htm; the context here is the high priest offering the goat on behalf of the people, as per Leviticus 16.16):
They brought to him the goat, he slaughtered it and caught his blood in a bowl. He entered to the place where he entered, and stood in the place where he stood, and sprinkled of it once on high and seven times below, and he did not purpose to sprinkle neither on high nor below, but unintentionally; and so he counted, "one, one and one, one and two," etc. He went out, and placed it on the second pedestal, which was in the Sanctuary. R. Judah said "there was but one pedestal only." He took the blood of the bullock and laid down the blood of the goat, and sprinkled of it on the vail opposite the ark, on the outside, once on high, seven times below, and he did not purpose, etc., and so he counted. He took the blood of the goat and laid down the blood of the bullock, and sprinkled of it on the vail opposite the ark, on the outside, once on high and seven times below, etc. He poured the blood of the bullock into the blood of the goat, and infused the full into the empty.
So expected was it that the high priest himself would perform these Yom Kippur duties that, as Andrew Criddle pointed out to me in a PM, there was a substitute in place in case the high priest might be incapacitated somehow; that substitute might then find himself in a rather gray area so far as the priesthood is concerned, as the Tosefta relates in the case of a certain Joseph of Sepphoris.
The daily sacrifices, too, were apparently assumed to be a function of the priesthood from start to finish. The Mishnah in Tamid 3.1 describes the assignment of the various sacrificial functions associated with the daily sacrifices, including the slaughtering of the animal, as the result of the casting of lots among the priests (http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/bar/bar097.htm):
The Captain of the Temple said to the priests, "come and cast lots." "Who is to slaughter?" "Who is to sprinkle?" "Who is to take the ashes from the inner altar?" "Who is to take the ashes from the candlestick?" "Who is to bring up the members to the ascent, the head and the right foot, and the two hind feet, the chine, and the left foot, the breast, and the throat, and the two sides, the inwards, and the fine flour, and the pancakes and the wine?" They cast lots, and he gained who gained.
The high priest routinely participated in other important sacrifices, as well, according to Josephus, Jewish War 5.5.7 §230 (Whiston translation):
The high priest did also go up with them; not always indeed, but on the seventh days and new moons, and if any festivals belonging to our nation, which we celebrate every year, happened.
So, to recap, there is nothing inherently priestly about laying hands on the sacrificial animal or slaughtering it as part of the sacrifice; however, there is also nothing to prevent a priest from doing so, and in some cases it seems to be assumed that either the priests in general (during the daily sacrifices) or the high priest himself in particular (on the Day of Atonement) would slaughter the animal, with no nonpriests involved.
The Greek term προσφέρω, to offer forth, is used of at least two of the steps of the sacrificial process (4 and 6); it is also used of presenting the animal at the door of the tabernacle.
The Greek term ἀναφέρω, to offer up, especially applies to the part of the sacrifice in which smoke, fragrance, incense, or flames rise up from the altar (6).
Both προσφέρω and ἀναφέρω may apparently also be used of the entire process, all relevant steps included.
I intend to reflect upon these conclusions as I continue to explore the epistle to the Hebrews.
Ben.